Alternative fuel vehicle

An another ammunition car is a car that runs on a ammunition added than "traditional" petroleum fuels (petrol or diesel); and aswell refers to any technology of powering an engine that does not absorb alone petroleum (e.g. electric car, amalgam electric vehicles, solar powered). Because of a aggregate of factors, such as ecology concerns, top oil prices and the abeyant for aiguille oil, development of cleaner another fuels and avant-garde ability systems for cars has become a top antecedence for abounding governments and car manufacturers about the world.

Hybrid electric cars such as the Toyota Prius are not in fact another ammunition vehicles, but through avant-garde technologies in the electric array and motor/generator, they accomplish a added able use of petroleum fuel.1 Added assay and development efforts in another forms of ability focus on developing all-electric and ammunition corpuscle vehicles, and even the stored activity of aeroembolism air.

As of 2011 there were added than one billion cars in use in the world,23 compared with about 70 actor another ammunition and avant-garde technology cars that had been awash or adapted common as of December 2011, and fabricated up mainly of:

27.1 actor flexible-fuel cars through December 2011, led by Brazil with 16.3 million,45 followed by the United States with about 10 million,6 Canada (600,000),7 and Europe, led by Sweden (228,522).8 The Brazilian agile includes 1.5 actor flexible-fuel motorcycles awash back 2009.910119

17.5 actor LPG powered cars by December 2010, led by Turkey with 2.39 million, Poland (2.32 million), and South Korea (2.3 million).12

14.8 actor accustomed gas cars by December 2011, led by Iran with 2.86 million, followed by Pakistan (2.85 million), Argentina (2.04 million), Brazil (1.7 million), and India (1.1 million).13

5.7 actor neat-ethanol alone light-vehicles congenital in Brazil back 1979,4 with 2.4 to 3.0 actor cars still in use by 2004.1415

More than 4.5 actor amalgam electric cars awash through December 2011, led by the United States with 2.16 actor units,1617 followed by Japan with added than 1.5 actor hybrids.1819202122 Toyota Motor Company is the bazaar baton with added than 3.5 actor Lexus and Toyota hybrids awash worldwide,23 followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with accumulative sales of added than 800,000 hybrids,24 and Ford Motor Corporation with added than 185,000 hybrids awash in the United States by December 2011.1617

More than 530,000 constituent electric cars (PEVs) awash common by December 2011. Most electric cars in the apple anchorage are low-speed, low-range adjacency electric cars (NEVs), with about 479,000 NEVs on the alley by 2011.25 The world's top affairs NEV is the GEM, with all-around sales of 45,000 units through December 2010.26 The world's best affairs highway-capable constituent electric car is the Nissan Leaf all-electric car, with added than 21,000 units awash common through December 2011,27 followed by the Mitsubishi i-MiEV electric car, with all-around accumulative sales of added than 17,000 units through October 2011,28 and the Chevrolet Volt constituent hybrid, with 8,272 units awash through December 2011 in the U.S. and Canada.29303031 The United States and Japan are the world's better highway-capable constituent electric car markets as of December 2011. Back December 2010, about 18,000 constituent electric cars accept been awash in the U.S. through December 2011, led by the Nissan Leaf (9,693 units) and the Chevrolet Volt (7,997 units).32 Back July 2009, added than 13,000 electric cars accept been awash in Japan by November 2011, which includes added than 8,000 Leafs33 and 5,000 i-MiEVs.34

An ecology assay extends above just the operating ability and emissions. A life-cycle appraisal of a car involves assembly and post-use considerations. A cradle-to-cradle architecture is added important than a focus on a individual agency such as the blazon of fuel

Single fuel source

The air engine is an emission-free agent engine that uses aeroembolism air as a antecedent of energy. The aboriginal aeroembolism air car was invented by a French architect called Guy Nègre. The amplification of aeroembolism air may be acclimated to drive the pistons in a adapted agent engine. Ability of operation is acquired through the use of ecology calefaction at accustomed temperature to balmy the contrarily algid broadcast air from the accumulator tank. This non-adiabatic amplification has the abeyant to abundantly access the ability of the machine. The alone bankrupt is algid air (−15 °C), which could aswell be acclimated to air action the car. The antecedent for air is a pressurized carbon-fiber tank. Air is delivered to the engine via a rather accepted bang system. Unique crank architecture aural the engine increases the time during which the air allegation is broiled from ambient sources and a two date action allows bigger calefaction alteration rates.

editBattery-electric

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Main articles: Array electric car and Electric car

General Motors EV1 electric car.

Battery electric cars (BEVs), aswell accepted as all-electric cars (AEVs), are electric cars whose capital activity accumulator is in the actinic activity of batteries. BEVs are the a lot of accepted anatomy of what is authentic by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) as aught discharge car (ZEV) because they aftermath no tailpipe emissions at the point of operation. The electrical activity agitated onboard a BEV to ability the motors is acquired from a array of array chemistries abiding into array packs. For added ambit genset trailers or pusher trailers are sometimes used, basic a blazon of amalgam vehicle. Batteries acclimated in electric cars cover "flooded" lead-acid, captivated bottle mat, NiCd, nickel metal hydride, Li-ion, Li-poly and zinc-air batteries.

Attempts at architecture viable, avant-garde battery-powered electric cars began in the 1950s with the addition of the aboriginal avant-garde (transistor controlled) electric car - the Henney Kilowatt, even admitting the abstraction was out in the bazaar back 1890. Despite the poor sales of the aboriginal battery-powered vehicles, development of assorted battery-powered cars connected through the mids 1990s, with such models as the General Motors EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV.

The 2011 Nissan Leaf was alien in Japan and the U.S. in December 2010, and in several European countries in aboriginal 2011.

Battery powered cars accept primarily acclimated lead-acid batteries and NiMH batteries. Lead-acid batteries' recharge accommodation is appreciably bargain if they're absolved above 75% on a approved basis, authoritative them a less-than-ideal solution. NiMH batteries are a bigger choice, but are appreciably added big-ticket than lead-acid. Lithium-ion array powered cars such as the Venturi Fetish and the Tesla Roadster accept afresh approved accomplished achievement and range, but they abide expensive, about is acclimated in a lot of accumulation assembly models launched in the backward 2000s.

As of May 2011, several adjacency electric vehicles, city-limits electric cars and highway-capable electric cars are accessible in several countries, including the Tesla Roadster, GEM cars, REVAi, Buddy, Th!nk City, Mitsubishi i MiEV, Nissan Leaf, Smart ED, and Wheego Whip LiFe. Due to the exceptional amount of electric cars because of the top amount of the array pack, several countries and bounded governments accept accustomed tax credits and added incentives for aboriginal buyers of electric vehicles. Added models accepted to ability the bazaar amid 2011 and 2012 cover the CODA Sedan, REVA NXR, Renault Fluence Z.E., Ford Focus Electric, Hyundai BlueOn, Tesla Model S, and BMW ActiveE. There are aswell several pre-production models and constituent conversions of absolute models that are currently ability acreage trials or are allotment of affirmation programs including the Mini E, BYD e6, Audi A1 e-tron and Volvo C30 DRIVe Electric.

Solar

A solar car is an electric car powered by solar activity acquired from solar panels on the car. Solar panels cannot currently be acclimated to anon accumulation a car with a acceptable bulk of ability at this time, but they can be acclimated to extend the ambit of electric vehicles. They are raced in competitions such as the Apple Solar Claiming and the North American Solar Challenge. These contest are generally sponsored by Government agencies such as the United States Department of Activity agog to advance the development of another activity technology such as solar beef and electric vehicles. Such challenges are generally entered by universities to advance their acceptance engineering and abstruse abilities as able-bodied as motor car manufacturers such as GM and Honda.

Trev's array lasts over 250,000 kilometres.

The North American Solar Claiming is a solar car chase beyond North America. Originally alleged Sunrayce, organized and sponsored by General Motors in 1990, it was renamed American Solar Claiming in 2001, sponsored by the United States Department of Activity and the National Renewable Activity Laboratory. Teams from universities in the United States and Canada attempt in a connected ambit analysis of ability as able-bodied as efficiency, active bags of afar on approved highways.

Nuna is the name of a alternation of manned solar powered cars that won the Apple solar claiming in Australia three times in a row, in 2001 (Nuna 1 or just Nuna), 2003 (Nuna 2) and 2005 (Nuna 3). The Nunas are congenital by acceptance of the Delft University of Technology.

The Apple solar claiming is a solar powered car chase over 3,021 kilometres (1,877 mi) through axial Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. The chase attracts teams from about the world, a lot of of which are fielded by universities or corporations although some are fielded by top schools.

Trev (two-seater renewable activity vehicle) was brash by the agents and acceptance at the University of South Australia. Trev was aboriginal displayed at the 2005 Apple Solar Claiming as the abstraction of a low-mass, able driver car. With 3 auto and a accumulation of about 300 kg, the ancestor car had best dispatch of 120 km/h and dispatch of 0–100 km/h in about 10 seconds. The active bulk of Trev is projected to be beneath than 1/10 of the active bulk of a baby petrol car.

editDimethyl ether fuel

Installation of BioDME amalgam building at Chemrec's pilot facility

Dimethyl ether (DME) is a able ammunition in agent engines,37 petrol engines (30% DME / 70% LPG), and gas turbines attributable to its top cetane number, which is 55, compared to diesel's, which is 40–53.3839 Abandoned abstinent modification are bare to catechumen a agent engine to bake DME. The artlessness of this abbreviate carbon alternation admixture leads during agitation to actual low emissions of chapped matter, NOx, CO. For these affidavit as able-bodied as getting sulfur-free, DME meets even the a lot of acrimonious discharge regulations in Europe (EURO5), U.S. (U.S. 2010), and Japan (2009 Japan).40 Mobil is application DME in their booze to gasoline process.

DME is getting developed as a constructed added bearing biofuel (BioDME), which can be bogus from lignocellulosic biomass.41 Currently the EU is because BioDME in its abeyant biofuel mix in 2030;42 the Volvo Group is the coordinator for the European Association Seventh Framework Programme activity BioDME4344 area Chemrec's BioDME pilot bulb based on atramentous liquor gasification is advancing achievement in Piteå, Sweden.45

editAmmonia fuelled vehicles

Ammonia GreenNH3 is getting acclimated with success by developers in Canada, back it can run in atom afire or agent engines with accessory modifications,also the abandoned blooming ammunition to ability jet engines,and admitting its toxicity is reckoned to be no added alarming than petrol or LPG.46 It can be fabricated from renewable electricity, and accepting bisected the body of petrol or agent can be readily agitated in acceptable quantities in vehicles. On agitation it has no emissions added than nitrogen and baptize vapour.citation needed

editBiofuels

Main article: Biofuel

editBioalcohol / Ethanol

See also: Booze fuel, Booze fuel, Common booze ammunition mixtures, Flexible-fuel vehicle, E85, and Biobutanol

The Ford Model T was the aboriginal bartering flex-fuel vehicle. The engine was able of active on gasoline or ethanol, or a mix of both.

The 1996 Ford Taurus was the aboriginal flexible-fuel car produced with versions able of active with either booze (E85) or booze (M85) attenuated with gasoline.

The 2003 VW Gol 1.6 Total Angle was the aboriginal bartering flexible-fuel car in the Brazilian market, able of active on any admixture of gasoline (E20 to E25 blend) and booze (E100).

The aboriginal bartering car that acclimated booze as a ammunition was the Ford Model T, produced from 1908 through 1927. It was adapted with a carburetor with adjustable jetting, acceptance use of gasoline or ethanol, or a aggregate of both.474849 Added car articles aswell provided engines for booze ammunition use.50 In the United States, booze ammunition was produced in corn-alcohol stills until Prohibition criminalized the assembly of booze in 1919. The use of booze as a ammunition for centralized agitation engines, either abandoned or in aggregate with added fuels, accomplished until the oil bulk shocks of the 1970s. Furthermore, added absorption was acquired because of its accessible ecology and abiding economical advantages over deposit fuel.

Both booze and booze accept been acclimated as an automotive fuel.51 While both can be acquired from petroleum or accustomed gas, booze has admiring added absorption because it is brash a renewable resource, calmly acquired from amoroso or starch in crops and added agronomical aftermath such as grain, sugarcane, amoroso beets or even lactose. Back booze occurs in attributes whenever aggrandize happens to acquisition a amoroso band-aid such as corrupt fruit, a lot of bacilli accept acquired some altruism to ethanol, admitting booze is toxic. Added abstracts absorb butanol, which can aswell be produced by beverage of plants. Abutment for booze comes from the actuality that it is a biomass fuel, which addresses altitude change and greenhouse gas emissions, admitting these allowances are now awful debated,50525354 including the acrimonious 2008 aliment vs ammunition debate.

Most avant-garde cars are brash to run on gasoline are able of active with a alloy from 10% up to 15% booze alloyed into gasoline (E10-E15). With a baby bulk of redesign, gasoline-powered cars can run on booze concentrations as top as 85% (E85), the best set in the United States and Europe due to algid acclimate during the winter,55 or up to 100% (E100) in Brazil, with a warmer climate. Booze has abutting to 34% beneath activity per aggregate than gasoline,5657 appropriately ammunition abridgement ratings with booze blends are decidedly lower than with authentic gasoline, but this lower activity agreeable does not construe anon into a 34% abridgement in mileage, because there are abounding added variables that affect the achievement of a accurate ammunition in a accurate engine, and aswell because booze has a college octane appraisement which is benign to top compression arrangement engines.

For this reason, for authentic or top booze blends to be adorable for users, its bulk accept to be lower than gasoline to account the lower ammunition economy. As a aphorism of thumb, Brazilian consumers are frequently brash by the bounded media to use added booze than gasoline in their mix abandoned if booze prices are 30% lower or added than gasoline, as booze bulk fluctuates heavily depending on the after-effects and melancholia harvests of amoroso pikestaff and by region.5859 In the US, and based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models, the boilerplate ammunition abridgement for E85 cars was begin 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline.50 The EPA-rated breadth of accepted American flex-fuel vehicles60 could be brash if authoritative bulk comparisons, admitting E85 has octane appraisement of about 104 and could be acclimated as a acting for exceptional gasoline. Regional retail E85 prices alter broadly beyond the US, with added favorable prices in the Midwest region, area a lot of blah is developed and booze produced. In August 2008 the US boilerplate advance amid the bulk of E85 and gasoline was 16.9%, while in Indiana was 35%, 30% in Minnesota and Wisconsin, 19% in Maryland, 12 to 15% in California, and just 3% in Utah.61 Depending of the car capabilities, the breach even bulk of E85 usually has to be amid 25 to 30% lower than gasoline.50 (See bulk comparisons for a lot of states at e85prices.com)

E85 ammunition awash at a approved gasoline base in Washington, D.C..

Reacting to the top bulk of oil and its growing assurance on imports, in 1975 Brazil launched the Pro-alcool program, a huge government-subsidized accomplishment to accomplish booze ammunition (from its amoroso pikestaff crop) and ethanol-powered automobiles. These ethanol-only cars were actual accepted in the 1980s, but became economically abstract if oil prices fell - and amoroso prices rose - backward in that decade. In May 2003 Volkswagen congenital for the aboriginal time a bartering booze adjustable ammunition car, the Gol 1.6 Total Flex. These cars were a bartering success and by aboriginal 2009 added nine Brazilian manufacturers are bearing adjustable ammunition vehicles: Chevrolet, Fiat, Ford, Peugeot, Renault, Honda, Mitsubishi, Toyota, Citroën, and Nissan.462 The acceptance of the angle technology was so rapid, that adjustable ammunition cars accomplished 87.6% of new car sales in July 2008.63 As of August 2008, the agile of "flex" automobiles and ablaze bartering cars had accomplished 6 actor new cars sold,64 apery about 19% of all registered ablaze vehicles.65 The accelerated success of "flex" vehicles, as they are bargain known, was fabricated accessible by the actuality of 33,000 bushing stations with at atomic one booze pump accessible by 2006, a ancestry of the Pro-alcool program.6667

In the United States, antecedent abutment to advance another fuels by the government was aswell a acknowledgment to the 1973 oil crisis, and after on, as a ambition to advance air quality. Also, aqueous fuels were adopted over aerial fuels not abandoned because they accept a bigger volumetric activity body but aswell because they were the a lot of accordant fuels with absolute administration systems and engines, appropriately alienated a big abandonment from the absolute technologies and demography advantage of the car and the refueling infrastructure.51 California led the seek of acceptable alternatives with absorption in methanol.51 In 1996, a new FFV Ford Taurus was developed, with models absolutely able of active either booze or booze attenuated with gasoline.5168 This booze adaptation of the Taurus was the aboriginal bartering assembly of a E85 FFV.69 The drive of the FFV assembly programs at the American car companies continued, although by the end of the 90's, the accent was on the FFV E85 version, as it is today.51 Booze was adopted over booze because there is a ample abutment in the agronomics association and acknowledgment to government's allurement programs and corn-based booze subsidies.70 Sweden aswell activated both the M85 and the E85 flexifuel vehicles, but due to agronomics policy, in the end accent was accustomed to the booze flexifuel vehicles

Biodiesel

The capital annual of Agent agitation engines is that they accept a 44% ammunition bake efficiency; compared with just 25-30% in the best gasoline engines.72 In accession agent ammunition has hardly college Activity Density by aggregate than gasoline. This makes Agent engines able of accomplishing abounding bigger ammunition abridgement than gasoline vehicles.

Biodiesel (Fatty acerbic methyl ester), is commercially accessible in a lot of oilseed-producing states in the United States. As of 2005, it is somewhat added big-ticket than deposit diesel, admitting it is still frequently produced in about baby quantities (in allegory to petroleum articles and ethanol). Many farmers who accession oilseeds use a biodiesel alloy in tractors and accessories as a bulk of policy, to advance assembly of biodiesel and accession accessible awareness. It is sometimes easier to acquisition biodiesel in rural areas than in cities. Biodiesel has lower Activity Density than deposit agent fuel, so biodiesel cars are not absolutely able to accumulate up with the ammunition abridgement of a deposit fuelled agent vehicle, if the agent bang arrangement is not displace for the new fuel. If the bang timing is afflicted to yield annual of the college Cetane bulk of biodiesel, the aberration in abridgement is negligible. Because biodiesel contains added oxygen than agent or vegetable oil fuel, it produces the everyman emissions from agent engines, and is lower in a lot of emissions than gasoline engines. Biodiesel has a college atrocity than mineral agent and is an accretion in European pump agent for atrocity and emissions reduction.

Some Diesel-powered cars can run with accessory modifications on 100% authentic vegetable oils. Vegetable oils tend to thicken (or coalesce if it is decay affable oil), in algid acclimate altitude so car modifications (a two catchbasin arrangement with agent start/stop tank), are capital in adjustment to calefaction the ammunition above-mentioned to use beneath a lot of circumstances. Heating to the temperature of engine coolant reduces ammunition viscosity, to the ambit cited by bang arrangement manufacturers, for systems above-mentioned to 'common rail' or 'unit bang ( VW PD)' systems. Decay vegetable oil, abnormally if it has been acclimated for a continued time, may become hydrogenated and accept added acidity. This can could cause the agglomeration of fuel, gumming in the engine and acerbic accident of the ammunition system. Biodiesel does not accept this problem, because it is chemically candy to be PH aloof and lower viscosity. Modern low discharge diesels (most about Euro -3 and -4 compliant), archetypal of the accepted assembly in the European industry, would crave all-encompassing modification of injector system, pumps and seals etc. due to the college operating pressures, that are advised thinner (heated) mineral agent than anytime before, for atomisation, if they were to use authentic vegetable oil as fuel. Vegetable oil ammunition is not acceptable for these cars as they are currently produced. This reduces the bazaar as accretion numbers of new cars are not able to use it. However, the German Elsbett aggregation has auspiciously produced individual catchbasin vegetable oil ammunition systems for several decades, and has formed with Volkswagen on their TDI engines. This shows that it is technologically accessible to use vegetable oil as a ammunition in top ability / low discharge agent engines.

Greasestock is an accident captivated annual in Yorktown Heights, New York, and is one of the better showcases of cars application decay oil as a biofuel in the United States.73747576

editBiogas

Main article: Biogas

Compressed Biogas may be acclimated for Centralized Agitation Engines afterwards ablution of the raw gas. The abatement of H2O, H2S and particles can be apparent as accepted bearing a gas which has the aforementioned above as Aeroembolism Accustomed Gas. The use of biogas is decidedly absorbing for climates breadth the decay calefaction of a biogas powered ability bulb cannot be acclimated during the summer.4677

editCharcoal

In the 1930s Tang Zhongming fabricated an apparatus application abounding charcoal assets for Chinese auto market. The Charcoal-fuelled car was afterwards acclimated assiduously in China, confined the army and conveyancer afterwards the blemish of World War II.

editCNG Aeroembolism Accustomed Gas

Main article: Accustomed gas vehicle

The Brazilian Fiat Siena Tetrafuel 1.4, the aboriginal multifuel car that runs as a flexible-fuel on authentic gasoline, or E25, or E100; or runs as a bi-fuel with accustomed gas (CNG).

High burden aeroembolism accustomed gas, mainly composed of methane, that is acclimated to ammunition accustomed agitation engines instead of gasoline. Agitation of methane produces the atomic bulk of CO2 of all deposit fuels. Gasoline cars can be retrofitted to CNG and become bifuel Accustomed gas cars (NGVs) as the gasoline catchbasin is kept. The disciplinarian can about-face amid CNG and gasoline during operation. Accustomed gas cars (NGVs) are accepted in regions or countries breadth accustomed gas is abundant. Widespread use began in the Po River Valley of Italy, and afterwards became actual accepted in New Zealand by the eighties, admitting its use has declined.78

Buses powered with CNG are accepted in the United States.

As of December 2011, there were 14.8 actor accustomed gas cars worldwide, led by Iran with 2.86 million, followed carefully by Pakistan (2.85 million), Argentina (2.07 million), Brazil (1.70 million), and India (1.10 million).13 As of 2010, the Asia-Pacific arena led the all-around bazaar with a allotment of 54%.79 In Europe they are accepted in Italy (730,000), Ukraine (200,000), Armenia (101,352), Russia (100,000) and Germany (91,500),79 and they are acceptable added so as assorted manufacturers aftermath branch fabricated cars, buses, vans and abundant vehicles.77 In the United States CNG powered buses are the admired best of several accessible alteration agencies, with an estimated CNG bus agile of some 130,000.80 Added countries breadth CNG-powered buses are accepted cover India, Australia, Argentina, and Germany.78

CNG cars are accepted in South America, breadth these cars are mainly acclimated as taxicabs in capital cities of Argentina and Brazil. Normally, accepted gasoline cars are retrofitted in specialized shops, which absorb installing the gas butt in the block and the CNG bang arrangement and electronics. The Brazilian GNV agile is concentrated in the cities of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.81 Pike Analysis letters that about 90% of NGVs in Latin America havebi-fuel engines, acceptance these cars to run on either gasoline or CNG.82

In 2006 the Brazilian accessory of FIAT alien the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel, a four-fuel car developed beneath Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil.8384 This auto can run on 100% booze (E100), E25 (Brazil's accustomed booze gasoline blend), authentic gasoline (not accessible in Brazil), and accustomed gas, and switches from the gasoline-ethanol alloy to CNG automatically, depending on the ability appropriate by alley conditions.85 Added absolute advantage is to retrofit an booze flexible-fuel car to add a accustomed gas catchbasin and the agnate bang system. Some taxicabs in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, run on this option, acceptance the user to accept a allotment of three fuels (E25, E100 and CNG) according to accepted bazaar prices at the pump. Cars with this adjustment are accepted in Brazil as "tri-fuel" cars.86

editHydrogen

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Main articles: Hydrogen car and Hydrogen economy

The 2009 Honda FCX Clarity is an hydrogen ammunition corpuscle auto launched to the bazaar in 2008.

Hydrogen fueling base in California.

Sequel, a hydrogen ammunition cell-powered car from General Motors.

A hydrogen car is an auto which uses hydrogen as its primary antecedent of ability for locomotion. These cars about use the hydrogen in one of two methods: agitation or fuel-cell conversion. In combustion, the hydrogen is "burned" in engines in fundamentally the aforementioned adjustment as acceptable gasoline cars. In fuel-cell conversion, the hydrogen is angry into electricity through ammunition beef which again admiral electric motors. With either method, the alone byproduct from the spent hydrogen is water.

Honda alien its ammunition corpuscle car in 1999 alleged the FCX and accept aback again alien the added bearing FCX Clarity. Bound business of the FCX Clarity, based on the 2007 abstraction model, began in June 2008 in the United States, and it was alien in Japan in November 2008.87 The FCX Clarity is accessible in the U.S. alone in Los Angeles Area, breadth 16 hydrogen bushing stations are available, and until July 2009, alone 10 drivers accept busy the Clarity for US$600 a month.88 Honda declared that it could alpha accumulation bearing cars based on the FCX abstraction by the year 2020.88

A baby bulk of ancestor hydrogen cars currently exist, and a cogent bulk of analysis is underway to accomplish the technology added viable. The accepted centralized agitation engine, usually fueled with gasoline (petrol) or agent liquids, can be adapted to run on aerial hydrogen. However, the a lot of able use of hydrogen involves the use of ammunition beef and electric motors instead of a acceptable engine. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen central the ammunition cells, which produces electricity to ability the motors. One primary breadth of analysis is hydrogen storage, to try to admission the ambit of hydrogen cars while abbreviation the weight, activity consumption, and complication of the accumulator systems. Two primary methods of accumulator are metal hydrides and compression. Some accept that hydrogen cars will never be economically applicable and that the accent on this technology is a aberration from the development and popularization of added able amalgam cars and added another technologies.citation needed

High dispatch cars, buses, motorcycles, bicycles, submarines, and amplitude rockets already run on hydrogen, in assorted forms. There is even a alive toy archetypal car that runs on solar power, application a capricious ammunition corpuscle to abundance activity in the anatomy of hydrogen and oxygen gas. It can again catechumen the ammunition aback into baptize to absolution the solar energy.citation needed

BMW's Clean Activity centralized agitation hydrogen car has added ability and is faster than hydrogen ammunition corpuscle electric cars. A bound alternation assembly of the 7 Alternation Saloon was appear as basic at the end of 2006. A BMW hydrogen ancestor (H2R) application the driveline of this archetypal bankrupt the dispatch almanac for hydrogen cars at 300 km/h (186 mi/h), authoritative automotive history. Mazda has developed Wankel engines to bake hydrogen. The Wankel uses a rotary assumption of operation, so the hydrogen burns in a altered allotment of the engine from the intake. This reduces pre-detonation, a botheration with hydrogen fueled agent engines.citation needed

The added above car companies like Daimler, Chrysler, Honda, Toyota, Ford and General Motors, are advance in hydrogen ammunition beef instead. VW, Nissan, and Hyundai/Kia aswell accept ammunition corpuscle car prototypes on the road. In addition, alteration agencies beyond the apple are active ancestor ammunition corpuscle buses. Ammunition corpuscle vehicles, such as the new Honda Clarity, can get up to 70 afar (110 km) on a kilogram of hydrogen.citation needed

editLiquid nitrogen car

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Main article: Liquid nitrogen vehicle

Further information: Liquid nitrogen economy

Liquid nitrogen (LN2) is a adjustment of autumn energy. Activity is acclimated to liquify air, and again LN2 is produced by evaporation, and distributed. LN2 is apparent to ambient calefaction in the car and the consistent nitrogen gas can be acclimated to ability a agent or agent engine. The best bulk of activity that can be extracted from 1 kg of LN2 is 213 W-hr or 173 W-hr per liter, in which a best of 70 W-hr can be activated with an isothermal amplification process. Such a car can accomplish ranges agnate to that of gasoline with a 350 liter (90 gallon) tank. Theoretical approaching engines, application bottomward topping cycles, can advance this to about 110 W-hr/kg with a quasi-isothermal amplification process. The advantages are aught adverse emissions and above activity densities compared to a Compressed-air vehicle, and a car powered by LN2 can be refilled in a bulk of minutes.

editLPG or Autogas

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Main article: Autogas

A propane-fueled academy bus in the United States.

LPG or liquified petroleum gas is a low burden liquified gas admixture composed mainly of propane and butane which burns in accepted gasoline agitation engines with beneath CO2 than gasoline. Gasoline cars can be retrofitted to LPG aka Autogas and become bifuel cars as the gasoline catchbasin stays. You can about-face amid LPG and gasoline during operation. Estimated 10 actor cars active worldwide.

There are 17.473 actor LPG powered cars accepted as of December 2010, and the arch countries are Turkey (2.394 actor vehicles), Poland (2.325 million), and South Korea (2.3 million).12 In the U.S., 190,000 on-road cars use propane,89 and 450,000 forklifts use it for power.

Hyundai Motor Aggregation began sales of the Elantra LPI Amalgam in the South Korean calm bazaar in July 2009. The Elantra LPI (Liquefied Petroleum Injected) is the world's aboriginal amalgam electric car to be powered by an centralized agitation engine congenital to run on abounding petroleum gas (LPG) as a fuel.9091

editSteam

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The Stanley Beef Car

Main article: Beef car

A beef car is a car that has a beef engine. Wood, coal, ethanol, or others can be acclimated as fuel. The ammunition is austere in a boiler and the calefaction converts baptize into steam. If the baptize turns to steam, it expands. The amplification creates pressure. The burden pushes the pistons aback and forth. This turns the driveshaft to circuit the auto forward. It works like a coal-fueled beef train, or beef boat. The beef car was the next analytic footfall in absolute transport.

Steam cars yield a continued time to start, but some can ability speeds over 100 mph (161 km/h) eventually. the backward archetypal doble could be brought to operational action in beneath than 30 seconds, and were fast, with top acceleration, but they were ridiculously expensive.

A beef engine uses alien combustion, as against to centralized combustion. Gasoline-powered cars are added able at about 25-28% efficiency. In theory, a accumulated aeon beef engine in which the afire actual is aboriginal acclimated to drive a gas agent can aftermath 50% to 60% efficiency. However, applied examples of beef engined cars plan at alone about 5-8% efficiency.

The best accepted and best affairs steam-powered car was the Stanley Steamer. It acclimated a bunched fire-tube boiler beneath the awning to ability a simple two-piston engine which was affiliated anon to the rear axle. Afore Henry Ford alien account transaction costs with abundant success, cars were about purchased outright. This is why the Stanley was kept simple; to accumulate the acquirement amount affordable.

Steam produced in algidity aswell can be use by a agent in added car types to aftermath electricity, that can be active in electric motors or stored in a battery.

Steam ability can be accumulated with a accepted oil-based engine to actualize a hybrid. Baptize is injected into the butt afterwards the ammunition is burned, if the agent is still superheated, about at temperatures of 1500 degrees or more. The baptize will instantly be vaporized into steam, demography advantage of the calefaction that would contrarily be wasted.

editWood gas

Vehicle with a gasifier

Main article: Copse gas

Wood gas can be acclimated to ability cars with accustomed centralized agitation engines if a copse gasifier is attached. This was absolutely accepted during World War II in several European and Asian countries because the war prevented simple and cost-effective admission to oil.

Multiple fuel source

Flexible fuel

Six archetypal Brazilian abounding flex-fuel models from several carmakers, bargain accepted as "flex" cars, that run on any alloy of booze and gasoline(actually amid E20-E25 to E100).

Main article: Flexible-fuel vehicle

See also: Neat booze vehicle

A flexible-fuel car (FFV) or dual-fuel car is an another ammunition auto or ablaze assignment barter with a multifuel engine that can use added than one fuel, usually alloyed in the aforementioned tank, and the alloy is austere in the agitation alcove together. These cars are colloquially alleged flex-fuel, or flexifuel in Europe, or just angle in Brazil. FFVs are acclaimed from bi-fuel vehicles, area two fuels are stored in abstracted tanks. The a lot of accepted commercially accessible FFV in the apple bazaar is the booze flexible-fuel vehicle, with the above markets concentrated in the United States, Brazil, Sweden, and some added European countries. In accession to flex-fuel cars active with ethanol, in the US and Europe there were acknowledged analysis programs with booze flex-fuel vehicles, accepted as M85 FFVs, and added afresh there accept been aswell acknowledged tests application p-series fuels with E85 angle ammunition vehicles, but as of June 2008, this ammunition is not yet accessible to the accepted public.

Ethanol flexible-fuel cars accept accepted gasoline engines that are able of active with booze and gasoline alloyed in the aforementioned tank. These mixtures accept "E" numbers which call the allotment of booze in the mixture, for example, E85 is 85% booze and 15% gasoline. (See accepted booze ammunition mixtures for added information.) Admitting technology exists to acquiesce booze FFVs to run on any admixture up to E100,5092 in the U.S. and Europe, flex-fuel cars are optimized to run on E85. This absolute is set to abstain algid starting problems during absolute algid weather. The booze agreeable ability be bargain during the winter, to E70 in the U.S. or to E75 in Sweden. Brazil, with a warmer climate, developed cars that can run on any mix up to E100, admitting E20-E25 is the binding minimum blend, and no authentic gasoline is awash in the country.

By December 2010 accumulative all-around sales of flexible-fuel cars accept accomplished about 22.6 actor units, led by Brazil with 12 actor automobiles and ablaze trucks, and 515,726 flexible-fuel motorcycles,41011 followed by the United States with 9.3 million,93 Canada (600,000),7 and Europe, led by Sweden (216,975).8 In Brazil, 65% of flex-fuel owners use booze ammunition consistently in 2009,94 while, the absolute bulk of American FFVs getting run on E85 is abundant lower; surveys conducted in the U.S. accept begin that 68% of American flex-fuel car owners were not acquainted they endemic an E85 flex.50 This is anticipation to be due to a bulk of factors, including:

Typical labeling acclimated in the US to analyze E85 vehicles. Top left: a baby sticker in the aback of the ammunition accompaniment door. Basal left: the ablaze chicken gas cap acclimated in newer models. E85 Flexfuel badging acclimated in newer models from Chrysler (top right), Ford (middle right) and GM (bottom right).

The actualization of flex-fuel and non-flex-fuel cars is identical;

There is no bulk aberration amid a pure-gasoline car and its flex-fuel variant;

The abridgement of customer acquaintance of flex-fuel vehicles;

The abridgement of advance of flex-fuel cars by American automakers, who generally do not characterization the cars or bazaar them in the aforementioned way they do to amalgam cars

By contrast, automakers affairs FFVs in Brazil frequently affix badges commercial the car as a flex-fuel vehicle. As of 2007, new FFV models awash in the U.S. were appropriate to affection a chicken gas cap emblazoned with the characterization "E85/gasoline", in adjustment to admonish drivers of the cars' flex-fuel capabilities.9596 Use of E85 in the U.S. is aswell afflicted by the almost low bulk of E85 bushing stations in operation beyond the country, with just over 1,750 in August 2008,97 a lot of of which are concentrated in the Corn Belt states, led by Minnesota with 353 stations, followed by Illinois with 181, and Wisconsin with 114.98 By comparison, there are some 120,000 stations accouterment approved non-ethanol gasoline in the United States alone.99

US E85FlexFuel Chevrolet Impala LT 2009.

There accept been claims that American automakers are motivated to aftermath flex-fuel cars due to a artifice in the Corporate Average Ammunition Abridgement (CAFE) requirements, which gives the automaker a "fuel abridgement credit" for every flex-fuel car sold, whether or not the car is in fact fueled with E85 in approved use.67 This artifice allegedly allows the U.S. auto industry to accommodated CAFE ammunition abridgement targets not by developing more, added fuel-efficient models, but by spending amid $100 and $200 added per car to aftermath a assertive bulk of flex-fuel models, enabling them to abide affairs beneath fuel-efficient cars such as SUVs, which netted college accumulation margins than smaller, added fuel-efficient cars.100101

In the United States, E85 FFVs are able with sensor that automatically ascertain the ammunition mixture, signaling the ECU to tune atom timing and ammunition bang so that ammunition will bake abundantly in the vehicle's centralized agitation engine. Originally, the sensors were army in the ammunition band and bankrupt system; added contempo models do abroad with the ammunition band sensor. Another affection of earlier flex-fuel cars is a baby abstracted gasoline accumulator catchbasin that was acclimated for starting the car on algid days, if the booze admixture fabricated agitation added difficult.

The Honda CG 150 Titan Mix was the aboriginal flex-fuel motorcycle launched to the bazaar in the world.

Modern Brazilian flex-fuel technology enables FFVs to run an any alloy amid E20-E25 gasohol and E100 booze fuel, application a lambda delving to admeasurement the superior of combustion, which informs the engine ascendancy assemblage as to the exact agreement of the gasoline-alcohol mixture. This technology, developed by the Brazilian accessory of Bosch in 1994, and added bigger and commercially implemented in 2003 by the Italian accessory of Magneti Marelli, is accepted as "Software Ammunition Sensor". The Brazilian accessory of Delphi Automotive Systems developed a agnate technology, accepted as "Multifuel", based on analysis conducted at its ability in Piracicaba, São Paulo.102 This technology allows the ambassador to adapt the bulk of ammunition injected and atom time, as ammunition breeze needs to be decreased to abstain blast due to the top compression arrangement (around 12:1) acclimated by flex-fuel engines.

The aboriginal angle motorcycle was launched by Honda in March 2009. Produced by its Brazilian accessory Moto Honda da Amazônia, the CG 150 Titan Mix is awash for about US$2,700.103104105106 Because the motorcycle does not accept a accessory gas catchbasin for a algid alpha like the Brazilian angle cars do, the catchbasin accept to accept at atomic 20% of gasoline to abstain alpha up problems at temperatures beneath 15°C (59°F). The motorcycle’s console includes a barometer to acquaint the disciplinarian about the absolute ethanol-gasoline mix in the accumulator tank.106107

editHybrid

The Toyota Prius Constituent Amalgam has an all-electric ambit of 15 afar (24 km).

The Chevrolet Volt is a constituent amalgam able to run in all-electric approach for 35 afar (56 km)

The Sinclair C5 pedal-assisted array vehicle.

Main articles: Amalgam vehicle, Amalgam electric vehicle, and Constituent hybrid

A amalgam car uses assorted propulsion systems to accommodate motive power. The a lot of accepted blazon of amalgam car is the gasoline-electric amalgam vehicles, which use gasoline (petrol) and electric batteries for the activity acclimated to ability internal-combustion engines (ICEs) and electric motors. These motors are usually almost baby and would be advised "underpowered" by themselves, but they can accommodate a accustomed active acquaintance if acclimated in aggregate during dispatch and added assignment that crave greater power.

The Toyota Prius aboriginal went on auction in Japan in 1997 and it is awash common back 2000. By 2010 the Prius is awash in added than 70 countries and regions, with Japan and the United States as its better markets.108 In May 2008, all-around accumulative Prius sales accomplished the 1 actor units, and by September 2010, the Prius accomplished common accumulative sales of 2 actor units.108 The United States is the better amalgam bazaar in the world, with added than 2 actor amalgam automobiles and SUVs awash through May 2011.109 The Prius is the top affairs amalgam car in the U.S. with 1 actor units awash by April 2011.110

The Honda Insight is a two-seater auto amalgam auto bogus by Honda. It was the aboriginal banal amalgam auto awash in the United States, alien in 1999, and produced until 2006.111112 Honda alien the second-generation Insight in Japan in February 2009, and the new Insight went on auction in the U.S. on April 22, 2009.113114 Honda aswell offers the Honda Civic Amalgam back 2002.

Among others, the afterward are accepted gasoline-electric amalgam models accessible in the bazaar by 2009: Ford Escape Hybrid, Chevrolet Silverado/GMC Sierra Hybrid, Lexus RX 400h, Toyota Highlander Hybrid, Mercury Mariner Hybrid, Toyota Camry Hybrid, Saturn Vue Green Line, Lexus LS600hL, Mazda Tribute Hybrid, Nissan Altima Hybrid, Ford Fusion/Mercury Milan Hybrid, and Mercedes S400 BlueHybrid.

Several above carmakers are currently developing constituent amalgam electric cars (PHEVs). Chinese array architect and automaker BYD Auto appear the F3DM PHEV-68 (PHEV109km) auto to the Chinese agile bazaar on December 15, 2008.115116 The 2011 Chevrolet Volt is the aboriginal accumulation produced PHEV launched in the United States, and it was alien in November 2010.117118 Added PHEVs ability acreage testing as of December 2010 cover the Toyota Prius Constituent Hybrid, Ford Escape Constituent Hybrid, Volvo V70 Constituent Hybrid, and Suzuki Swift Plug-in.

The Elantra LPI Hybrid, launched in the South Korean calm bazaar in July 2009, is a amalgam car powered by an centralized agitation engine congenital to run on abounding petroleum gas (LPG) as a fuel. The Elantra PLI is a balmy amalgam and the aboriginal amalgam to accept avant-garde lithium polymer (Li–Poly) batteries.9091

editPedal-assisted electric amalgam vehicle

In absolute baby vehicles, the ability appeal decreases, so animal ability can be active to accomplish a cogent advance in array life. Two such commercially fabricated cars are the Sinclair C5 and the TWIKE.